In the Research Model, Specifying What It Is That You Want to Learn About a Topic Is the Stage of

Defining the Problem

Defining a sociological problem helps frame a question to be addressed in the inquiry process.

Learning Objectives

Explain how the definition of the problem relates to the research process

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• The first stride of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study inside the context of a particular exam but also wide enough to accept a more full general practical or theoretical merit.
• For many sociologists, the goal is to conduct research which may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro level to the macro level.
• Similar other sciences, folklore relies on the systematic, conscientious collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities to be considered valid. Given that sociology deals with topics that are often difficult to measure, this generally involves operationalizing relevant terms.

Fundamental Terms

• operational definition: A showing of something — such as a variable, term, or object — in terms of the specific process or prepare of validation tests used to determine its presence and quantity.
• operationalization: In humanities, operationalization is the process of defining a fuzzy concept so every bit to make the concept clearly distinguishable or measurable and to empathize it in terms of empirical observations.

Defining the problem is necessarily the first step of the research process. After the problem and research question is defined, scientists generally gather information and other observations, form hypotheses, examination hypotheses by collecting data in a reproducible manner, clarify and interpret that data, and draw conclusions that serve as a starting indicate for new hypotheses.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: This epitome lists the diverse stages of the scientific method.

The first pace of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study inside the context of a particular examination but besides wide plenty to have a more general applied or theoretical merit. For many sociologists, the goal is to conduct research which may be applied straight to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro level of private agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure.

Like other sciences, sociology relies on the systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities to be considered valid. Given that sociology deals with topics that are often difficult to measure, this by and large involves operationalizing relevant terms. Operationalization is a process that describes or defines a concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to considerately measure it, as opposed to some more than vague, inexact, or idealized definition. The operational definition thus identifies an appreciable condition of the concept. Past operationalizing a variable of the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable fashion.

For example, intelligence cannot be directly quantified. We cannot say, simply by observing, exactly how much more intelligent i person is than another. But nosotros can operationalize intelligence in various ways. For instance, we might administer an IQ test, which uses specific types of questions and scoring processes to give a quantitative measure of intelligence. Or we might use years of education equally a way to operationalize intelligence, assuming that a person with more years of education is also more intelligent. Of form, others might dispute the validity of these operational definitions of intelligence by arguing that IQ or years of education are not skillful measures of intelligence. After all, a very intelligent person may not have the means or inclination to pursue higher educational activity, or a less intelligent person may stay in school longer because they take trouble completing graduation requirements. In most cases, the manner we choose to operationalize variables can be contested; few operational definitions are perfect. But nosotros must use the best approximation we can in society to have some sort of measurable quantity for otherwise unmeasurable variables.

Operationalizing Variables: This video discusses what it means to operationalize a variable using the instance of "good health. "

Reviewing the Literature

Sociological researchers review past work in their surface area of interest and include this "literature review" in the presentation of their research.

Learning Objectives

Explain the purpose of literature reviews in sociological research

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• Literature reviews showcase researchers' noesis and understanding of the existing body of scholarship that relates to their research questions.
• A thorough literature review demonstrates the ability to enquiry and synthesize. Furthermore, it provides a comprehensive overview of what is and is non known, and why the research in question is important to brainstorm with.
• Literature reviews offer an explanation of how the researcher tin can contribute toward the existing body of scholarship by pursuing their ain thesis or research question.

Central Terms

• essay: A written composition of moderate length exploring a particular issue or subject field.
• Theses: A dissertation or thesis is a document submitted in support of campaigning for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the writer's research and findings. The term thesis is also used to refer to the full general merits of an essay or like work.
• disciplinary: Of or relating to an academic subject area.

A literature review is a logical and methodical mode of organizing what has been written virtually a topic by scholars and researchers. Literature reviews tin can normally be found at the beginning of many essays, enquiry reports, or theses. In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey what a researcher has learned through a careful reading of a ready of articles, books, and other relevant forms of scholarship related to the research question. Furthermore, creating a literature review allows researchers to demonstrate the ability to find meaning articles, valid studies, or seminal books that are related to their topic every bit well as the analytic skill to synthesize and summarize unlike views on a topic or event.

Library Inquiry: Good literature reviews require exhaustive research. Online resources make this process easier, merely researchers must nevertheless sift through stacks in libraries.

A strong literature review has the following properties:

• It is organized around issues, themes, factors, or variables that are related directly to the thesis or research question.
• It demonstrates the researcher's familiarity with the body of cognition by providing a good synthesis of what is and is non known most the subject area in question, while also identifying areas of controversy and debate, or limitations in the literature sharing different perspectives.
• It indicates the theoretical framework that the researcher is working with.
• It places the germination of inquiry questions in their historical and disciplinary context.
• It identifies the most important authors engaged in similar piece of work.
• It offers an explanation of how the researcher can contribute toward the existing torso of scholarship by pursuing their own thesis or research question.

Formulating the Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a potential respond to your research question; the research procedure helps you decide if your hypothesis is true.

Learning Objectives

Explicate how hypotheses are used in sociological research and the divergence between dependent and contained variables

Cardinal Takeaways

Primal Points

• Hypotheses are testable explanations of a problem, phenomenon, or observation.
• Both quantitative and qualitative research involve formulating a hypothesis to address the research problem.
• Hypotheses that suggest a causal relationship involve at least one independent variable and at least 1 dependent variable; in other words, one variable which is presumed to affect the other.
• An independent variable is one whose value is manipulated past the researcher or experimenter.
• A dependent variable is a variable whose values are presumed to modify every bit a issue of changes in the independent variable.

Key Terms

• dependent variable: In an equation, the variable whose value depends on ane or more variables in the equation.
• contained variable: In an equation, any variable whose value is non dependent on whatever other in the equation.
• hypothesis: Used loosely, a tentative theorize explaining an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that tin can be tested by further ascertainment, investigation, or experimentation.

A hypothesis is an assumption or suggested explanation about how two or more variables are related. It is a crucial pace in the scientific method and, therefore, a vital attribute of all scientific research. There are no definitive guidelines for the production of new hypotheses. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a flash of inspiration, or a hunch, which and so motivated them to wait for evidence to support or refute the thought.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: This prototype lists the various stages of the scientific method.

While there is no single way to develop a hypothesis, a useful hypothesis volition use deductive reasoning to make predictions that can be experimentally assessed. If results contradict the predictions, and then the hypothesis nether examination is wrong or incomplete and must be revised or abandoned. If results confirm the predictions, then the hypothesis might exist correct merely is however subject area to further testing.

Both quantitative and qualitative research involve formulating a hypothesis to address the inquiry trouble. A hypothesis will generally provide a causal caption or propose some association between ii variables. Variables are measurable phenomena whose values can change under different conditions. For example, if the hypothesis is a causal explanation, information technology volition involve at least one dependent variable and one contained variable. In research, independent variables are the cause of the modify. The dependent variable is the issue, or matter that is inverse. In other words, the value of a dependent variable depends on the value of the independent variable. Of form, this assumes that there is an actual relationship betwixt the two variables. If there is no relationship, so the value of the dependent variable does not depend on the value of the independent variable.

Determining the Research Design

The research design is the methodology and procedure a researcher follows to answer their sociological question.

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast quantitive methods and qualitative methods

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Research design defines the written report type, research question, hypotheses, variables, and data drove methods. Some examples of enquiry designs include descriptive, correlational, and experimental. Another distinction can be made between quantitative and qualitative methods.
• Sociological research can exist conducted via quantitative or qualitative methods. Quantitative methods are useful when a researcher seeks to study large-scale patterns of behavior, while qualitative methods are more than effective when dealing with interactions and relationships in detail.
• Quantitative methods include experiments, surveys, and statistical analysis, among others. Qualitative methods include participant observation, interviews, and content assay.
• An interpretive framework is one that seeks to sympathise the social world from the perspective of participants.
• Although sociologists often specialize in one approach, many sociologists use a complementary combination of design types and enquiry methods in their enquiry. Even in the same written report a researcher may employ multiple methods.

Key Terms

• quantitative methods: Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.
• qualitative methods: Qualitative inquiry is a method of enquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market enquiry and farther contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, and when. Hence, smaller only focused samples are more often needed than large samples.
• scientific method: A method of discovering knowledge about the natural world based in making falsifiable predictions (hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing peer-reviewed theories that all-time explain the known information.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Inquiry: This image lists the diverse stages of the scientific method.

A research design encompasses the methodology and procedure employed to carry scientific research. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methods of obtaining knowledge. In full general, scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and pattern enquiry to test these hypotheses via predictions which can exist derived from them.

The blueprint of a study defines the study type, research question and hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, and information drove methods. At that place are many means to classify research designs, but some examples include descriptive (case studies, surveys), correlational (observational report), semi-experimental (field experiment), experimental (with random consignment), review, and meta-analytic, amid others. Another distinction can be made between quantitative methods and qualitative methods.

Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods are generally useful when a researcher seeks to study big-scale patterns of beliefs, while qualitative methods are often more than constructive when dealing with interactions and relationships in detail. Quantitative methods of sociological research arroyo social phenomena from the perspective that they can be measured and quantified. For instance, socio-economical status (often referred to past sociologists as SES) can be divided into dissimilar groups such equally working-grade, middle-form, and wealthy, and can be measured using any of a number of variables, such as income and educational attainment.

Qualitative versus Quantitative Methods: These two researchers are debating the relative merits of using qualitative or quantitative methods to study social phenomena such every bit the learning processes of children.

Qualitative Methods

Qualitative methods are oftentimes used to develop a deeper understanding of a item phenomenon. They also ofttimes deliberately give up on quantity, which is necessary for statistical analysis, in social club to reach a greater depth in analysis of the phenomenon existence studied. While quantitative methods involve experiments, surveys, secondary data assay, and statistical analysis, qualitatively oriented sociologists tend to employ different methods of data collection and hypothesis testing, including participant observation, interviews, focus groups, content assay, and historical comparison.

Qualitative sociological research is oftentimes associated with an interpretive framework, which is more than descriptive or narrative in its findings. In dissimilarity to the scientific method, which follows the hypothesis-testing model in order to find generalizable results, the interpretive framework seeks to sympathize social worlds from the point of view of participants.

Although sociologists frequently specialize in one approach, many sociologists apply a complementary combination of design types and research methods in their research. Even in the same report a researcher may employ multiple methods.

Defining the Sample and Collecting Data

Defining the sample and collecting data are key parts of all empirical research, both qualitative and quantitative.

Learning Objectives

Describe unlike types of inquiry samples

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• It is of import to determine the scope of a research project when developing the question. The selection of method often depends largely on what the researcher intends to investigate. Quantitative and qualitative research projects require different field of study selection techniques.
• It is of import to decide the scope of a research project when developing the question. While quantitative research requires at least thirty subjects to be considered statistically significant, qualitative research mostly takes a more in-depth arroyo to fewer subjects.
• For both qualitative and quantitative research, sampling can be used. The stages of the sampling procedure are defining the population of involvement, specifying the sampling frame, determining the sampling method and sample size, and sampling and data collecting.
• There are various types of samples, including probability and nonprobability samples. Examples of types of samples include simple random samples, stratified samples, cluster samples, and convenience samples.
• Expert data collection involves following the defined sampling procedure, keeping the information in order, and noting comments and non-responses. Errors and biases can issue in the data. Sampling errors and biases are induced by the sample design. Non-sampling errors tin can also affect results.

Fundamental Terms

• information collection: Data collection is a term used to draw a process of preparing and collecting data.
• sample: A subset of a population selected for measurement, ascertainment or questioning, to provide statistical information most the population.
• bias: The departure betwixt the expectation of the sample figurer and the true population value, which reduces the representativeness of the figurer by systematically distorting it.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: This image lists the various stages of the scientific method.

Social scientists apply a range of methods in order to analyze a vast latitude of social phenomena. Many empirical forms of sociological research follow the scientific method. Scientific inquiry is generally intended to be as objective every bit possible in order to reduce the biased interpretations of results. Sampling and information collection are a key component of this process.

It is important to determine the telescopic of a research project when developing the question. The choice of method often depends largely on what the researcher intends to investigate. For example, a researcher concerned with drawing a statistical generalization across an entire population may administer a survey questionnaire to a representative sample population. By dissimilarity, a researcher who seeks full contextual understanding of the social actions of individuals may choose ethnographic participant observation or open-ended interviews. These two types of studies will yield dissimilar types of data. While quantitative enquiry requires at to the lowest degree 30 subjects to be considered statistically meaning, qualitative enquiry more often than not takes a more in-depth approach to fewer subjects.

Collecting Information: Natural scientists collect data by measuring and recording a sample of the matter they're studying, such as plants or soil. Similarly, sociologists must collect a sample of social information, often past surveying or interviewing a grouping of people.

In both cases, it behooves the researcher to create a concrete list of goals for collecting data. For instance, a researcher might identify what characteristics should be represented in the subjects. Sampling can be used in both quantitative and qualitative inquiry. In statistics and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the pick of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. The stages of the sampling procedure are defining the population of interest, specifying the sampling frame, determining the sampling method and sample size, and sampling and data collecting.

In that location are various types of samples. A probability sampling is ane in which every unit of measurement in the population has a chance (greater than cypher) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. Nonprobability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population have no gamble of selection or where the probability of option can't exist accurately determined. Examples of types of samples include simple random samples, stratified samples, cluster samples, and convenience samples.

Adept data collection involves following the defined sampling process, keeping the data in time gild, noting comments and other contextual events, and recording non-responses. Errors and biases can result in the data. Sampling errors and biases, such as option bias and random sampling error, are induced by the sample blueprint. Non-sampling errors are other errors which can impact the results, caused past bug in information collection, processing, or sample design.

Analyzing Data and Drawing Conclusions

Data analysis in sociological research aims to identify meaningful sociological patterns.

Learning Objectives

Compare and dissimilarity the analysis of quantitative vs. qualitative data

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making. Data assay is a process, within which several phases tin be distinguished.
• One way in which analysis tin can vary is by the nature of the data. Quantitative data is often analyzed using regressions. Regression analyses measure relationships between dependent and contained variables, taking the being of unknown parameters into account.
• Qualitative data can be coded–that is, key concepts and variables are assigned a shorthand, and the data gathered are cleaved downward into those concepts or variables. Coding allows sociologists to perform a more rigorous scientific analysis of the data.
• Sociological data analysis is designed to produce patterns. It is of import to remember, however, that correlation does not imply causation; in other words, simply considering variables change at a proportional rate, it does not follow that one variable influences the other.
• Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot be fatigued. Internal validity concerns the caste to which conclusions nigh causality can be made. External validity concerns the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable.

Central Terms

• correlation: A reciprocal, parallel or complementary relationship between two or more comparable objects.
• causation: The human activity of causing; as well the deed or agency by which an effect is produced.
• Regression analysis: In statistics, regression analysis includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the relationship betwixt a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. More specifically, regression analysis helps one empathize how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any ane of the independent variables is varied, while the other independent variables are held fixed.

The Process of Data Analysis

Analysis of information is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting determination making. In statistical applications, some people divide data analysis into descriptive statistics, exploratory information analysis (EDA), and confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on discovering new features in the information and CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on the application of statistical or structural models for predictive forecasting or classification. Text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify data from textual sources, a species of unstructured data.

Data analysis is a process, inside which several phases tin exist distinguished. The initial information analysis stage is guided by examining, among other things, the quality of the data (for example, the presence of missing or extreme observations), the quality of measurements, and if the implementation of the study was in line with the research design. In the primary analysis phase, either an exploratory or confirmatory approach can be adopted. Usually the arroyo is decided before data is collected. In an exploratory assay, no clear hypothesis is stated before analyzing the data, and the data is searched for models that describe the data well. In a confirmatory analysis, articulate hypotheses about the data are tested.

Regression Assay

The type of data analysis employed can vary. One way in which analysis ofttimes varies is past the quantitative or qualitative nature of the information.

Quantitative data tin be analyzed in a variety of means, regression analysis being amidst the about popular. Regression analyses measure relationships between dependent and independent variables, taking the existence of unknown parameters into business relationship. More specifically, regression analysis helps 1 understand how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied, while the other contained variables are held fixed.

Linear Regression: This graph illustrates random data points and their linear regression.

A large body of techniques for conveying out regression analysis has been developed. In practice, the performance of regression analysis methods depends on the form of the information generating process and how it relates to the regression arroyo being used. Since the truthful class of the data-generating process is generally non known, regression assay oft depends to some extent on making assumptions near this procedure. These assumptions are sometimes testable if a large amount of data is available. Regression models for prediction are often useful fifty-fifty when the assumptions are moderately violated, although they may not perform optimally. Notwithstanding, in many applications, particularly with pocket-sized effects or questions of causality based on observational data, regression methods give misleading results.

Coding

Qualitative information can involve coding–that is, central concepts and variables are assigned a shorthand, and the data gathered is broken down into those concepts or variables. Coding allows sociologists to perform a more rigorous scientific assay of the data. Coding is the process of categorizing qualitative data and then that the data becomes quantifiable and thus measurable. Of class, before researchers can lawmaking raw information such as taped interviews, they need to have a clear enquiry question. How information is coded depends entirely on what the researcher hopes to detect in the information; the same qualitative information can be coded in many different ways, calling attention to different aspects of the data.

Coding Qualitative Data: Qualitative information can be coded, or sorted into categories. Coded data is quantifiable. In this bar chart, help requests have been coded and categorized so we can meet which types of help requests are well-nigh common.

Sociological Data Analysis

Sociological data analysis is designed to produce patterns. It is important to remember, however, that correlation does non imply causation; in other words, merely because variables alter at a proportional rate, it does not follow that ane variable influences the other.

Correlation, Causation, and Spurious Relationships: This mock newscast gives three competing interpretations of the same survey findings and demonstrates the dangers of assuming that correlation implies causation.

Conclusions

In terms of the kinds of conclusions that can be drawn, a study and its results can be assessed in multiple ways. Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot exist drawn. Internal validity is an inductive guess of the degree to which conclusions about causal relationships can be made (e.g., cause and outcome), based on the measures used, the enquiry setting, and the whole research design. External validity concerns the extent to which the (internally valid) results of a study can be held to be truthful for other cases, such as to dissimilar people, places, or times. In other words, information technology is about whether findings can be validly generalized. Learning most and applying statistics (too as knowing their limitations) can help you lot amend understand sociological inquiry and studies. Knowledge of statistics helps you makes sense of the numbers in terms of relationships, and it allows you to ask relevant questions nearly sociological phenomena.

Preparing the Inquiry Report

Sociological enquiry publications by and large include a literature review, an overview of the methodology followed, the results and an assay of those results, and conclusions.

Learning Objectives

Depict the chief components of a sociological research paper

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Like any research paper, a sociological research report typically consists of a literature review, an overview of the methods used in data drove, and assay, findings, and conclusions.
• A literature review is a artistic way of organizing what has been written most a topic by scholars and researchers.
• The methods section is necessary to demonstrate how the study was conducted, including the population, sample frame, sample method, sample size, information collection method, and data processing and analysis.
• In the findings and conclusion sections, the researcher reviews all pregnant findings, notes and discusses all shortcomings, and suggests hereafter research.

Key Terms

• methodology: A collection of methods, practices, procedures, and rules used by those who work in some field.
• quantitative: Of a measurement based on some quantity or number rather than on some quality.
• literature review: A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including noun findings as well every bit theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic.

Like any inquiry paper, sociological research is presented with a literature review, an overview of the methods used in data collection, and analysis, findings, and conclusions. Quantitative research papers are normally highly formulaic, with a articulate introduction (including presentation of the problem and literature review); sampling and methods; results; discussion and conclusion. In striving to be as objective as possible in gild to reduce biased interpretations of results, sociological esearch papers follow the scientific method. Research reports may exist published as books or journal articles, given directly to a client, or presented at professional meetings.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Enquiry: The scientific method is a trunk of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new cognition, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.

A literature review is a creative way of organizing what has been written well-nigh a topic by scholars and researchers. You volition observe literature reviews at the outset of many essays, research reports, or theses. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what you have learned through a careful reading of a ready of articles related to your inquiry question.

A strong literature review has the post-obit properties:

• It is organized around issues, themes, factors, or variables that are related direct to your thesis or research question.
• Information technology shows the path of prior research and how the current project is linked.
• It provides a good synthesis of what is, and is non, known.
• Information technology indicates the theoretical framework with which you are working.
• It identifies areas of controversy and debate, or limitations in the literature sharing different perspectives.
• Information technology places the germination of enquiry questions in their historical context.
• Information technology identifies the list of the authors that are engaged in like piece of work.

The methodssection is necessary to demonstrate how the study was conducted, and that the information is valid for report. Without balls that the research is based on sound methods, readers cannot countenance whatever conclusions the researcher proposes. In the methodology department, be sure to include: the population, sample frame, sample method, sample size, information collection method, and information processing and analysis. This is likewise a department in which to conspicuously present data in table and graph form.

In the findings and conclusion sections, the researcher reviews all meaning findings, notes and discusses all shortcomings, and suggests hereafter research. The conclusion department is the only section where opinions can be expressed and persuasive writing is tolerated.

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